CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS

Physical chemistry

General topics: Concept of atoms and molecules; Dalton’s atomic theory; Mole concept; Chemical formulae; Balanced chemical equations; Calculations (based on mole concept) involving common oxidation-reduction, neutralisation, and displacement reactions; Concentration in terms of mole fraction, molarity, molality and normality.

Gaseous and liquid states: Absolute scale of temperature, ideal gas equation; Deviation from ideality, van der Waals equation; Kinetic theory of gases, average, root mean square and most probable velocities and their relation with temperature; Law of partial pressures; Vapour pressure; Diffusion of gases.

Atomic structure and chemical bonding: Bohr model, spectrum of hydrogen atom, quantum numbers; Wave-particle duality, de Broglie hypothesis; Uncertainty principle; Qualitative quantum mechanical picture of hydrogen atom, shapes of s, p and d orbitals; Electronic configurations of elements (up to atomic number 36); Aufbau principle; Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s rule; Orbital overlap and covalent bond; Hybridisation involving s, p and d orbitals only; Orbital energy diagrams for homonuclear diatomic species; Hydrogen bond; Polarity in molecules, dipole moment (qualitative aspects only); VSEPR model and shapes of molecules (linear, angular, triangular, square planar, pyramidal, square pyramidal, trigonal bipyramidal, tetrahedral and octahedral).

Energetics: First law of thermodynamics; Internal energy, work and heat, pressure-volume work; Enthalpy, Hess’s law; Heat of reaction, fusion and vapourization; Second law of thermodynamics; Entropy; Free energy; Criterion of spontaneity.

Chemical equilibrium: Law of mass action; Equilibrium constant, Le Chatelier's principle (effect of concentration, temperature and pressure); Significance of DG and DG^o in chemical equilibrium; Solubility product, common ion effect, pH and buffer solutions; Acids and bases (Bronsted and Lewis concepts); Hydrolysis of salts.

Electrochemistry: Electrochemical cells and cell reactions; Standard electrode potentials; Nernst equation and its relation to DG; Electrochemical series, emf of galvanic cells; Faraday's laws of electrolysis; Electrolytic conductance, specific, equivalent and molar conductivity, Kohlrausch's law; Concentration cells.

Chemical kinetics: Rates of chemical reactions; Order of reactions; Rate constant; First order reactions; Temperature dependence of rate constant (Arrhenius equation).

Solid state: Classification of solids, crystalline state, seven crystal systems (cell parameters a, b, c, alpha, beta, gamma), close packed structure of solids (cubic), packing in fcc, bcc and hcp lattices; Nearest neighbours, ionic radii, simple ionic compounds, point defects.

Solutions: Raoult's law; Molecular weight determination from lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point and depression of freezing point.

Surface chemistry: Elementary concepts of adsorption (excluding adsorption isotherms); Colloids: types, methods of preparation and general properties; Elementary ideas of emulsions, surfactants and micelles (only definitions and examples).

Nuclear chemistry: Radioactivity: isotopes and isobars; Properties of alpha, beta and gamma rays; Kinetics of radioactive decay (decay series excluded), carbon dating; Stability of nuclei with respect to proton-neutron ratio; Brief discussion on fission and fusion reactions.

Inorganic Chemistry

Isolation/preparation and properties of the following non-metals: Boron, silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulphur and halogens; Properties of allotropes of carbon (only diamond and graphite), phosphorus and sulphur.

Preparation and properties of the following compounds: Oxides, peroxides, hydroxides, carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium; Boron: diborane, boric acid and borax; Aluminium: alumina, aluminium chloride and alums; Carbon: oxides and oxyacid (carbonic acid); Silicon: silicones, silicates and silicon carbide; Nitrogen: oxides, oxyacids and ammonia; Phosphorus: oxides, oxyacids (phosphorus acid, phosphoric acid) and phosphine; Oxygen: ozone and hydrogen peroxide; Sulphur: hydrogen sulphide, oxides, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and sodium thiosulphate; Halogens: hydrohalic acids, oxides and oxyacids of chlorine, bleaching powder; Xenon fluorides.

Transition elements (3d series): Definition, general characteristics, oxidation states and their stabilities, colour (excluding the details of electronic transitions) and calculation of spin-only magnetic moment; Coordination compounds: nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, cis-trans and ionisation isomerisms, hybridization and geometries of mononuclear coordination compounds (linear, tetrahedral, square planar and octahedral).

Preparation and properties of the following compounds: Oxides and chlorides of tin and lead; Oxides, chlorides and sulphates of Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺; Potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, silver oxide, silver nitrate, silver thiosulphate.

Ores and minerals:Commonly occurring ores and minerals of iron, copper, tin, lead, magnesium, aluminium, zinc and silver.

Extractive metallurgy: Chemical principles and reactions only (industrial details excluded); Carbon reduction method (iron and tin); Self reduction method (copper and lead); Electrolytic reduction method (magnesium and aluminium); Cyanide process (silver and gold).

Principles of qualitative analysis: Groups I to V (only Ag⁺, Hg²⁺, Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, Bi³⁺, Fe³⁺, Cr³⁺, Al³⁺, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, Zn²⁺, Mn²⁺ and Mg²⁺); Nitrate, halides (excluding fluoride), sulphate and sulphide.

Organic Chemistry

Concepts: Hybridisation of carbon; Sigma and pi-bonds; Shapes of simple organic molecules; Structural and geometrical isomerism; Optical isomerism of compounds containing up to two asymmetric centres, (R,S and E,Z nomenclature excluded); IUPAC nomenclature of simple organic compounds (only hydrocarbons, mono-functional and bi-functional compounds); Conformations of ethane and butane (Newman projections); Resonance and hyperconjugation; Keto-enol tautomerism; Determination of empirical and molecular formulae of simple compounds (only combustion method); Hydrogen bonds: definition and their effects on physical properties of alcohols and carboxylic acids; Inductive and resonance effects on acidity and basicity of organic acids and bases; Polarity and inductive effects in alkyl halides; Reactive intermediates produced during homolytic and heterolytic bond cleavage; Formation, structure and stability of carbocations, carbanions and free radicals.

Preparation, properties and reactions of alkanes: Homologous series, physical properties of alkanes (melting points, boiling points and density); Combustion and halogenation of alkanes; Preparation of alkanes by Wurtz reaction and decarboxylation reactions.

Preparation, properties and reactions of alkenes and alkynes: Physical properties of alkenes and alkynes (boiling points, density and dipole moments); Acidity of alkynes; Acid catalysed hydration of alkenes and alkynes (excluding the stereochemistry of addition and elimination); Reactions of alkenes with KMnO₄ and ozone; Reduction of alkenes and alkynes; Preparation of alkenes and alkynes by elimination reactions; Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes with X₂, HX, HOX and H₂O (X=halogen); Addition reactions of alkynes; Metal acetylides.

Reactions of benzene: Structure and aromaticity; Electrophilic substitution reactions: halogenation, nitration, sulphonation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation; Effect of o-, m- and p-directing groups in monosubstituted benzenes.

Phenols: Acidity, electrophilic substitution reactions (halogenation, nitration and sulphonation); Reimer-Tieman reaction, Kolbe reaction.

Characteristic reactions of the following (including those mentioned above): Alkyl halides: rearrangement reactions of alkyl carbocation, Grignard reactions, nucleophilic substitution reactions; Alcohols: esterification, dehydration and oxidation, reaction with sodium, phosphorus halides, ZnCl₂/concentrated HCl, conversion of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones; Ethers:Preparation by Williamson's Synthesis; Aldehydes and Ketones: oxidation, reduction, oxime and hydrazone formation; aldol condensation, Perkin reaction; Cannizzaro reaction; haloform reaction and nucleophilic addition reactions (Grignard addition); Carboxylic acids: formation of esters, acid chlorides and amides, ester hydrolysis; Amines: basicity of substituted anilines and aliphatic amines, preparation from nitro compounds, reaction with nitrous acid, azo coupling reaction of diazonium salts of aromatic amines, Sandmeyer and related reactions of diazonium salts; carbylamine reaction; Haloarenes: nucleophilic aromatic substitution in haloarenes and substituted haloarenes (excluding Benzyne mechanism and Cine substitution).

Carbohydrates: Classification; mono- and di-saccharides (glucose and sucrose); Oxidation, reduction, glycoside formation and hydrolysis of sucrose.

Amino acids and peptides: General structure (only primary structure for peptides) and physical properties.

Properties and uses of some important polymers: Natural rubber, cellulose, nylon, teflon and PVC.

Practical organic chemistry: Detection of elements (N, S, halogens); Detection and identification of the following functional groups: hydroxyl (alcoholic and phenolic), carbonyl (aldehyde and ketone), carboxyl, amino and nitro; Chemical methods of separation of mono-functional organic compounds from binary mixtures.

Pursuing studies in USA is a dream and aim of every student. There are more than 40 states in US which offer education opportunities in English Language, Summer, Undergraduate, Graduate, 2-year/Community Colleges, Vocational/Career and Online/Distance Learning.

We list here few universities :

University of Alabama, English Language Institute in State Alabama

Thunderbird, The Garvin Graduate School of International Management, Northern Arizona University - Program in Intensive English, Arizona State University, American English and Culture Program in State Arizona

Arkansas State University, Spring International Language Center, University of Arkansas in State Arkansas

Kaplan Educational Centers - Vancouver and Malaspina University-College in British Columbia

University of California, Los Angeles, Summer Sessions, University of San Francisco, English Language Academy, University of San Diego, Kaplan Educational Centers - Berkeley, LA, and Sacramento, Monterey Institute of International Studies - Intensive English Programs in California

Johnson & Wales University, Kaplan Educational Centers - Miami and Schiller International University in Florida

Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, University of Illinois at Chicago, Tutorium in Intensive English and University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Intensive English Institute in Illinois

Clark University - Graduate Programs in Massachusetts

New York University American Language Institute, Pace University English Language Institute in New York

Radford University in Virginia

Various areas for specialization in education are Arts and Design, Aviation, Business English, Business/MBA, Engineering, Executive and Professional, Health and Wellness, Hospitality and Tourism, Law Schools/Programs, Medical/Dental/Nursing, Short-term/Certificate, Special Programs, Sports Academies, Summer Intensive English, Technology/Computers, TESOL and Teacher Training, TOEFL and Test Preparation, Video Game Development.

So do not just make a hasty decision to join just any course or a university. Take wise decision for joing a course or a university which builds your career so well that you don't look back for the rest of your life !

Fortunately or unfortunately, competitive exams have become a strict norm for selection to various professional courses in our country. Notwithstanding the demerits of such a system, competitive exams are a reality for the lakhs of students who appear in them every year.

In such a scenario, everyone wants to success. Success in these exams brings immense glory and confidence to the individuals, besides giving them a clear cut break into the career line of their choice. However, seats are limited and not everyone who appears can be selected. This does not mean that those who are not selected do not deserve a training in these courses. It only means that there aren't sufficient seats to accommodate all the deserving candidates.

Keeping this background in mind, let us explore what it takes to succeed in these competitive exams particularly at the undergraduate level.

To my mind, the first prerequisite for success in these examinations is determination. The candidate must be quite sure of his level of motivation. Without a high level of motivation, no one can go through the rigorous preparation process. Thus, you must be absolutely determined to give your best efforts in your endeavor.

Once one is sufficiently motivated, one needs to be ready to give sufficient number of hours of his or her time in studies. This is real hard work and involves significant sacrifices on the part of the individual. "All work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy". Therefore it is also important that the candidate does take out some time for relaxation either through sports, music or other art forms. Regular exercise ( about 15 - 20 minutes ) every day will help maintain a healthy body which in turn will house a healthy mind.

The third requirement, is selection of the right study material. One should not go for shortcuts. Instead, try to understand the chapters / concepts in detail and practice sufficient number number of questions. Therefore go for standard textbooks, study materials provided, as various correspondence courses and other coaching institutions serve as supplementary and complementary material to the textbook material.

The fourth consideration is an appropriate 'Study Strategy'. A very common question which students ask is, How to balance the school studies with competitive exam study. T think that school studies can be incorporated within the broad framework of one's competitive exams' preparation strategy. One strategy is to look at each chapter as a chapter to be learnt, a material to be mastered; rather than dichotomizing it as school & competitive exam-related study material. Ultimately, if one's clear about the concepts of say, "Current & Electricity", and has practiced sufficient number of questions / numericals ; one can face any examination whether of school or competition. One can use periodical tests in school as an opportunity to master the material that one has collected rather than restricting yourself to the limited knowledge & practice that is needed for doing well in the periodical test itself. Of course, you may not be able to complete all the practice material for one test but clear the concepts. You can use the rest of the practice material for revision and self evaluation at a later time. As the examinations come closer, practicing previous years papers is also key to doing well in these examinations.

Also revise the important concepts, facts, problems that you would have marked during during your 1.5 - 2 years of preparation before the examination.

On the day of examination, keep your cool and attempt the questions. Remember, if you have given your best during the last 1.5 - 2 years, you need not fear anything. Ultimately, only effort and not the result is in your hand. Which you should do to your maximum capability as outlined above. Rest is your destiny or luck. So go ahead, give your best and leave the rest!

Q. 1. Biological organisation starts with:

1. Atomic level
2. Submicroscopic molecular level
3. Cellular level
4. Organismic level

Sol. Correct choice: (2)

Q. 2. About 98 percent of the mass of every living organism is composed of just six elements including carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and:

1. calcium and phosphorous
2. phosphorus and sulphur
3. sulphur and magnesium
4. magnesium and sodium

Sol. Correct choice: (1)

Q. 3. Which one of the following is an example of negative feed back loop in humans?

1. Secretion of sweat glands and constriction of skin blood vessels when it is too hot.
2. Constriction of skin blood vessels and contraction of skeletal muscles when it is too cold.
3. Secretion of tears after falling of sand particles in to the eye
4. Salivation of mouth at the sight of delicious food.

Sol. When the set point of hypothalamus is disturbed by high temperature, it stimulates vasodilation and sweating while in low temperature there is vasoconstriction and shivering. Correct choice: (2)

Q. 4. What is common to whale, seal and shark?

1. Homoiothermy
2. Seasonal migration]
3. Thick subcutaneous fat
4. Convergent evolution

Sol. Shark is poikilothermous. All three species show adaptations for aquatic life while these are not closely related. Correct choice: (4)

Q. 5. Which one of the following is not a constituent of cell membrane?

1. Phospholipids
2. Cholesterol
3. Glycolipids
4. Proline

Sol. Correct choice: (4)

Q. 6. Select the wrong statement from the following:

1. The chloroplasts are generally much larger than mitochondria.
2. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria contain and inner and an outer membrane
3. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria have an internal compartment, the thylakoid space bounded by the thylakoid membrane
4. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria contain DNA.

Sol. Correct choice: (3)

Q. 7. The overall goal of glycolysis, Krebs cycle and the electron transport system is the formation of:

1. Nucleic acids
2. ATP is small stepwise units
3. ATP in one large oxidation reaction
4. Sugars

Sol. Correct choice: (2)

Q. 8. If the mean and the median pertaining to a certain character of a population are of the same value, the following is most likely to occur:

1. a skewed curve
2. a normal distribution
3. a bi-modal distribution
4. a T -shaped curve
   

Sol. Correct choice: (2)

Q. 9. Which one of the following is a slime mould?

1. Anabaena
2. Rhizopus
3. Physarum
4. Thiobacillus

Sol. Physarum is an acellular slime mould. Correct choice: (3)

Q.10. For a critical study of secondary growth in plants, which one of the following pairs is suitable?

1. Wheat and maiden hair fern
2. Sugarcane and sunflower
3. Teak and pine
4. Deodar and fern

Sol. Secondary growth occurs in gymnosperms and dicots. Correct choice: (3)

Q.11. Which one of the following statements about Mycoplasma is wrong?

1. They cause disease in plants
2. They are also called PPLO
3. They are pleomorphic
4. They are sensitive to penicillin

Sol. Mycoplasma is not sensitive to penicillin due to absence of cell wall. Correct choice: (4)

Q.12. In the prothallus of vascular cryptogam, the antherozoids and eggs mature at different times. As a result:

1. self fertilization is prevented
2. there is no change in success rate of fertilization
3. there is high degree of sterility
4. one can conclude that the plant is apomictic

Sol. In vascular cryptogam i.e. in pteridophytes gametophyte is monoecious but protandrous to avoid self fertilization. Correct choice: (1)

Q.13. Two plants can be conclusively said to belong to the same species if they:

1. have same number of chromosomes
2. can reproduce freely with each other and form seeds
3. have more than 90 per cent similar genes
4. look similar and possess identical secondary metabolities.

Sol. The members of a species are inter-fertile and produce fertile offsprings. Correct choice: (2)

Q.14. If you are asked to classify the various algae into distinct groups, which of the following characters you should choose?

1. Chemical composition of the cell wall
2. Types of pigments present in the cell
3. Nature of stored food materials in the cell
4. Structural organization of thallus.

Sol. The various algae are classified mainly on the types of pigments present in their cells. Correct choice: (2)

Q.15. Flagellated male gametes are present in all the three of which one of the following sets?

1. Riccia, Dryopteris and Cycas
2. Anthoceros, Funaria and Spirogyra
3. Zygnema, Saprolegnia and Hydrilla
4. Fucus, Marsilea and Calotropis

Sol. The male gametes of bryophytes are biflagellete, and those of pteriodophytes are multiflagellate, except Selaginella having biflagellate gametes. The male gametes of gymnosperms are non motile except those of Cycas having multiciliate gametes. Correct choice: (1)

Q.16. In gymnosperms, the pollen chamber represents:

1. the microsporangium in which pollen grains develop
2. a cell in the pollen grain in which the sperms formed
3. a cavity in the ovule in which pollen grains are stored after pollination
4. an opening in the mega gametophyte through which the pollen tube approaches the egg.

Sol. In gymnosperms, below micropylar beak some of the cells of nucellus of ovule disintigerate to form pollen chamber. Correct choice: (3)

Q.17. Spore dissemination in some liverworts is aided by:

1. peristome teeth
2. elaters
3. indusium
4. calyptra

Sol. In some liverworts like Marchantia spore dispersal is due to hydrochasy and is aided by elaters. Correct choice: (2)

Q.18. Which pair of the following belongs to Basidiomycetes?

1. Morchella and Mushrooms
2. Birds’ nest fungi and Pufballs
3. Pufballs and Claviceps
4. Peziza and Stink horns

Sol. Bird’s nest fungi – Cyathus, Pufballs – Lycoperdon, Both belong to the class Basidiomycetes. Correct choice: (3)

Q.19. ICBN stands for:

1. Indian Code of Botanical Nomenclature
2. Indian Congress of Biological Names
3. International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
4. International Congress of Biological Names

Sol. ICBN is one of the codes of nomenclature. It stands for International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Correct choice: (3)

Q. 20. Ergot of rye is caused by a species of:

1. Claviceps
2. Phytophthora
3. Uncinula
4. Ustilago

Sol. Ergot of rye is caused by Claviceps purpurea. Correct choice: (1)

How To Use An Online Dictionary

Dictionaries are awash with words. Online resources - such as the excellent Merriam-Webster - use a variety of functions to help give the user accurate and useful results. In this article, we will discuss these functions, providing tips and ideas for getting the most from online dictionary usage.

When Unsure Of Exact Spelling Of Word(s)

If you are searching for a particular word, but are unsure of the exact spelling, online dictionaries allow you to type in the letters you do know, with the '?' symbol inserted in spaces where you are unsure which letter to type. For example, if you are unsure of the spelling for education, you could type educa???n

If You Want To Look For Related Words/Terms

You can use online dictionaries to search for related words or terms. For example, if you wanted to look at a compilation of words that start book, type book* and you will be returned results such as bookworm and bookmobile. You can use the asterisk before the word as well to return related words that end in 'book': workbook for example.

Searching For Multiple Word Phrases

Online dictionaries allow users to search for multiple word phrases such as cockles of the heart and daylight saving time. Type words using a '+' symbol to indicate that you are searching for a combination of the words: American+sign+language.

What Font Should I Use?

Online dictionaries will have their own preset fonts, and it doesn't matter whether you type in capitals or not: tuiTION is the same as tuition.

Read Notes Provided, Including Pronunciation Guide(s)

Some dictionaries will have their own pronunciation guides, so read any user information they provide with their search facility. Many online dictionaries also provide etymology and usage notes. These are very useful, so read the notes provided carefully.

An excellent site to practise online searching is the Encyclopedia Britannica website.

How To Use A Search Engine

Using a search engine effectively sounds a lot easier than it actually often is. With so many pages out in cyberspace, common searches regularly yield millions of results. The good news is that as the net grows, so too do search engines' functions and accuracy, helping online searchers to get to the most appropriate information quickly. In this article, we summarize some of the most useful ideas and tips for effective search engine use.

In general...

Choose Your Keywords Carefully

'Keywords' are the words you type into the search box on the engine's homepage. For example, net users looking for books will often simply type books and hit 'return'. It's a much better idea to decide beforehand exactly what *type* of book you might be interested in. In other words, poetry books or religious books are examples of better keyword choices, because they will return more accurate and useful results.

More Keywords = More Accuracy

Typing poetry books author Auden will limit results to only pages that contain all of those words. The more keywords, the more accurate and streamlined the results will be.

Be Specific!

Typing keywords like Paris or London will produce millions of results, the vast majority of which are likely to be unsuitable or irrelevant to your search. Instead, follow the suggestions above and use a variety of well-chosen keywords.

Try Directories

Search engines also have directories, organized alphabetically, by category and region. Using directories will help bring focus to your search query. For example, by looking up 'French', you will find a wide range of options to follow up on - from cuisine and wine to language learning. A good place to start is the Google Directory.

In particular...

Including or Excluding Certain Keywords

You can choose to include or exclude certain terms from your search, by using the '+' or '-' signs with your text. For example, vacation disneyland -paris will bring back results for Disneyland in Florida, but not for Disneyland, Paris.

Whole Phrase Searches

If you want to search for a part or whole phrase, such as how to use a search engine, put the text in commas: "how to use a search engine".

Site Only Searches

To search within a particular site, type 'site:' followed by the URL of the website. If you want to search for a keyword within a particular site, type the word and then the 'site:' with the site's address. Example: iraq site:www.cnn.com.

Searching in Other Languages

If you want to search in another language, Yahoo and Google - currently the most popular search engines - both have alternative language-specific search pages for a variety of different languages. Try 'fr' or 'de' (instead of 'com') at the end of a search engine address to bring up French and German language versions. Google also provides an excellent website or page translation tool at http://www.google.com/language_tools